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Track and field (also known as track and field sports, track and field athletics, or commonly just track) is a💻 sport comprising various competitive athletic contests based around the activities of running, jumping and throwing.
The name of the sport derives💻 from the venue for the competitions: a stadium which features an oval running track surrounding a grassy area.
The throwing and💻 jumping events generally take place within the central enclosed area.
Track and field is one of the sports which (along with💻 road running, cross-country running and race walking) makes up the umbrella sport of athletics.
It is under the banner of athletics💻 that the two most prestigious international track and field competitions are held: the athletics competition at the Olympic Games and💻 the IAAF World Championships in Athletics.
The International Association of Athletics Federations is the international governing body for track and field.
Track💻 and field events are generally individual sports with athletes challenging each other to decide a single victor.
The racing events are💻 won by the athlete with the fastest time, while the jumping and throwing events are won by the athlete who💻 has achieved the greatest distance or height in the contest.
The running events are categorised as sprints, middle and long-distance events,💻 relays, and hurdling.
Regular jumping events include long jump, triple jump, high jump and pole vault, while the most common throwing💻 events are shot put, javelin, discus and hammer.
There are also "combined events", such as heptathlon and decathlon, in which athletes💻 compete in a number of the above events.
Records are kept of the best performances in specific events, at world and💻 national levels, right down to a personal level.
However, if athletes are deemed to have violated the event's rules or regulations,💻 they are disqualified from the competition and their marks are erased.
The athletes wear small clothes that make running easier; men💻 wear shorts and sleeveless shirts while women wear swim-like suits.
A Greek vase from 500BC depicting a running contest
The sport of💻 track and field has its roots in human prehistory.
Track and field-style events are among the oldest of all sporting competitions,💻 as running, jumping and throwing are natural and universal forms of human physical expression.
The first recorded examples of organized track💻 and field events at a sports festival are the Ancient Olympic Games.
At the first Games in 776 BC in Olympia,💻 Greece, only one event was contested: the stadion footrace.
The scope of the Games expanded in later years to include further💻 running competitions, but the introduction of the Ancient Olympic pentathlon marked a step towards track and field as it is💻 recognised today – it comprised a five-event competition of thelong jump, javelin throw, discus throw, the stadion foot race, and💻 wrestling.
Track and field events were also present at the Panhellenic Games in Greece around this period, and they spread to💻 Rome in Italy around 200 BC.
After the period of Classical antiquity (in which the sport was largely Greco-Roman influenced) new💻 track and field events began developing in parts of Northern Europe in the Middle Ages.
The stone putand weight throw competitions💻 popular among Celtic societies in Ireland and Scotland were precursors to the modernshot put and hammer throw events.
One of the💻 last track and field events to develop was the pole vault, which stemmed from competitions such as the Fierljeppen contests💻 in the Northern European Lowlands in the 18th century.
Discrete modern track and field competitions, separate from general sporting festivals, were💻 first recorded in the late 19th century.
These were typically organised by educational institutions, military organisations andsports clubs as competitions between💻 rival establishments.
[6] Competitive hurdling first came into being around this point, with the advent of the steeplechase in England around💻 1850.
The Amateur Athletic Association was established in England in 1880 as the first national body for the sport of athletics💻 and, under this grouping, track and field became the focus of the annual AAA Championships.
The United States also began holding💻 an annual national competition – the USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships – first held in 1876 by the New💻 York Athletic Club.
[8] Following the establishment of general sports governing bodies for the United States (the Amateur Athletic Union in💻 1888) and France (the Union des sociétés françaises de sports athlétiques in 1889), track and field events began to be💻 promoted and codified.
The establishment of the modern Olympic Games at the end of the 19th century marked a new high💻 for track and field.
The Olympic athletics programme, comprising track and field events plus a marathon race, contained many of the💻 foremost sporting competitions of the 1896 Summer Olympics.
The Olympics also consolidated the use of metric measurements in international track and💻 field events, both for race distances and for measuring jumps and throws.
The Olympic athletics programme greatly expanded over the next💻 decades, and track and field contests remained among the Games' most prominent.
The Olympics was the elite competition for track and💻 field, and only amateur sportsmen could compete.
Track and field would continue to be a largely amateur sport, as this rule💻 was strictly enforced: Jim Thorpe was stripped of his track and field medals from the 1912 Olympics after it was💻 revealed that he had played baseball professionally.
That same year, the International Amateur Athletic Federation (IAAF) was established, becoming theinternational governing💻 body for track and field, and it enshrined amateurism as one of its founding principles for the sport.
The National Collegiate💻 Athletic Association held their first Men's Outdoor Track and Field Championship in 1921, making it one of the most prestigious💻 competitions for students, and this was soon followed by the introduction of track and field at the inaugural World Student💻 Games in 1923.
The first continental track and field competition was the 1919 South American Championships, which was followed by the💻 European Athletics Championships in 1934.
Up until the early 1920s, track and field had been almost exclusively a male-only pursuit.
The women's💻 sports movement led to the introduction of five track and field events for women in the athletics at the 1928💻 Summer Olympics and more women's events were gradually introduced as years progressed (although it was only towards the end of💻 the century that the men's and women's programmes approached parity of events).
Furthermore, major track and field competitions fordisabled athletes were💻 first introduced at the 1960 Summer Paralympics.
Carl Lewis was among the athletes who helped increase track and field's profile
With the💻 rise of numerous regional championships, as well as the growth in Olympic-style multi-sport events(such as the Commonwealth Games and the💻 Pan-American Games), competitions between international track and field athletes became widespread.
From the 1960s onwards, the sport gained more exposure and💻 commercial appeal through television coverage and the increasing wealth of nations.
After over half a century of amateurism, the amateur status💻 of the sport began to be displaced by growing professionalism in the late 1970s.
As a result, the Amateur Athletic Union💻 was dissolved in the United States and it was replaced with a non-amateur body solely focused on the sport of💻 athletics: The Athletics Congress (later USA Track and Field).
The IAAF soon followed suit in 1982, abandoning amateurism, and later removing💻 all references to it from its name by rebranding itself as the International Association of Athletics Federations.
The following year saw💻 the establishment of the IAAF World Championships in Athletics – the first ever global competition for just athletics which became💻 one of track and field's most prestigious competitions along with the Olympics.
The profile of the sport reached a new high💻 in the 1980s, with a number of athletes becoming household names(such as Carl Lewis, Sergey Bubka, Sebastian Coe, Zola Budd💻 and Florence Griffith-Joyner).
Many world recordswere broken in this period, and the added political element between competitors of the United States,💻 East Germany, and the Soviet Union, in reaction to the Cold War, only served to stoke the sport's popularity.
The increase💻 in the commercial capacity of track and field was also met with developments in the application of sports science, and💻 there were many changes to coaching methods, athlete's diet regimes, training facilities and sports equipment.
This was also accompanied by an💻 increase in the use of performance-enhancing drugs, and prominent cases, such as those of Olympic gold medallists Ben Johnson and💻 Marion Jones, damaged the public image and marketability of the sport.
From the 1990s onwards, track and field became increasingly more💻 professional and international, as the IAAF gained over two hundred member nations.
The IAAF World Championships in Athletics became a fully💻 professional competition with the introduction of prize money in 1997, and in 1998 the IAAF Golden League - an annual💻 series of major track and field meetings in Europe - provided a higher level of economic incentive in the form💻 of a US$1 million jackpot.
In 2010, the series was replaced by the more lucrative IAAF Diamond League which comprises meetings💻 in Europe, Asia, North America and the Middle East – the first ever worldwide annual series of track and field💻 meetings.
Track and field events are divided in to three broad categories: track events, field events, and combined events.
The majority of💻 athletes tend to specialise in just one event (or event type) with the aim of perfecting their performances, although the💻 aim of combined events athletes is to become proficient in a number of disciplines.
Track events involve running on a track💻 over a specified distances and – in the case of the hurdlingand steeplechase events – obstacles may be placed on💻 the track.
There are also relay races in which teams of athletes run and pass on a batonto their team member💻 at the end of a certain distance.
There are two types of field events: jumps, and throws.
In jumping competitions, athletes are💻 judged on either the length or height of their jumps.
The performances of jumping events for distance are measured from a💻 board or marker, and any athlete overstepping this mark is judged to have fouled.
In the jumps for height, an athlete💻 must clear their body over a crossbar without knocking the bar off the supporting standards.
The majority of jumping events are💻 unaided, although athletes propel themselves vertically with purpose-built sticks in the pole vault.
The throwing events involve hurling an implement (such💻 as a heavy weight, javelin or discus) from a set point, with athletes being judged on the distance that the💻 object is thrown.
Combined events involve the same group of athletes contesting a number of different track and field events –💻 points are given for their performance in each event and the athlete with the greatest points total at the end💻 of all events is the winner.
Note: Events in italics are competed at indoor world championships only
The finish of a women's💻 100 m race
Races over short distances, or sprints, are among the oldest running competitions.
The first 13 editions of the Ancient💻 Olympic Games featured only one event – the stadion race, which was literally a race from one end of the💻 stadium to the other.
Sprinting events are focused around athletes reaching and sustaining their quickest possible running speed.
There are three sprinting💻 events which are currently held at the Olympics and outdoor World Championships: the 100 metres,200 metres, and 400 metres.
These events💻 have their roots in races of imperial measurements which were later altered to metric: the 100 m evolved from the💻 100 yard dash, the 200 m distances came from the furlong (or 1/8 of a mile), and the 400 m💻 was the successor to the 440 yard dash or quarter-mile race.
At the professional level, sprinters begin the race by assuming💻 a crouching position in the starting blocks before leaning forward and gradually moving into an upright position as the race💻 progresses and momentum is gained.
Athletes remain in the same lane on the running track throughout all sprinting events, with the💻 sole exception of the 400 m indoors.
Races up to 100 m are largely focused upon acceleration to an athlete's maximum💻 speed.
All sprints beyond this distance increasingly incorporate an element of endurance.
Human physiology dictates that a runner's near-top speed cannot be💻 maintained for more than thirty seconds or so as lactic acid builds up and leg muscles begin to be deprived💻 of oxygen.
The 60 metres is a common indoor event and it is an indoor world championship event.
Other less-common events include💻 the 50 metres, 55 metres, 300 metres and 500 metres which are used in some high school and collegiate competitions💻 in the United States.
The 150 metres, though rarely competed, has a star-studded history: Pietro Mennea set a world best in💻 1983, Olympic champions Michael Johnson and Donovan Bailey went head-to-head over the distance in 1997, and Usain Bolt improved Mennea's💻 record in 2009.
The most common middle distance track events are the 800 metres, 1500 metres and mile run, although the💻 3000 metres may also be classified as a middle distance event.
The 880 yard run, or half mile, was the forebear💻 to the 800 m distance and it has its roots in competitions in the United Kingdom in the 1830s.
The 1500💻 m came about as a result of running three laps of a 500 m track, which was commonplace in continental💻 Europe in the 20th century.
Runners start the race from a standing position along a curved starting line and after hearing💻 thestarter's pistol they head towards the inner-most track to follow the quickest route to the finish.
In 800 m races athletes💻 begin at a staggered starting point before the turn in the track and they must remain in their lanes for💻 the first 100 m of the race.
[24] This rule was introduced in order to reduce the amount of physical jostling💻 between runners in the early stages of the race.
[22] Physiologically, these middle distance events demand that athletes have good aerobic💻 and anaerobic energy producing systems, and also that they have strong speed endurance.[25]
The 1500 m and mile run events have💻 historically been some of the most prestigious track and field events.
Swedish rivals Gunder Hägg and Arne Andersson broke each other's💻 1500 m and mile world records on a number of occasions in the 1940s.
The prominence of the distances were maintained💻 by Roger Bannister, who (in 1954) was the first to run the long-elusive four-minute mile,[28][29] and Jim Ryun's exploits served💻 to popularise interval training.
[23] Races between British rivals Sebastian Coe, Steve Ovett and Steve Cram characterised middle distance running in💻 1980s.
From the 1990s onwards, North Africans such as Noureddine Morceli of Algeria and Hicham El Guerrouj of Morocco came to💻 dominate the 1500 and mile events.
Beyond the short distances of sprinting events, factors such as an athlete's reactions and top💻 speed becomes less important, while qualities such as pace, race tactics and endurance become more so.
There are three common long💻 distance running events in track and field competitions: 3000 metres,5000 metres and 10,000 metres.
The latter two races are both Olympic💻 and World Championship events outdoors, while the 3000 m is held at the IAAF World Indoor Championships.
The 5000 m and💻 10,000 m events have their historical roots in the 3-mile and 6-mile races.
The 3000 m was historically used as a💻 women's long distance event, entering the World Championship programme in 1983 and Olympic programme in 1984, but this was abandoned💻 in favour of a women's 5000 m event in 1995.
In terms of competition rules and physical demands, long distance track💻 races have much in common with middle distance races, except that pacing, stamina, and race tactics become much greater factors💻 in performances.
[32][33] However, a number of athletes have achieved success in both middle and long distance events, including Saïd Aouita💻 who set world records from 1500 m to 5000 m.
[34] The use of pace-setters in long distance events is very💻 common at the elite level, although they are not present at championship level competitions as all qualified competitors want to💻 win.[33][35]
The long distance track events gained popularity in the 1920s by the achievements of the "Flying Finns", such as multiple💻 Olympic championPaavo Nurmi.
The successes of Emil Zátopek in the 1950s promoted intense interval training methods, but Ron Clarke's world record-breaking💻 feats established the importance of natural training and even-paced running.
The 1990s saw the rise of North and East African runners💻 in long distance events.
Kenyan and Ethiopian athletes, in particular, have since remained dominant in these events.
Relay races are the only💻 track and field event in which a team of runners directly compete against other teams.
[36] Typically, a team is made💻 up of four runners of the same sex.
Each runner completes their specified distance (referred to as a leg) before handing💻 over a baton to a team mate, who then begins their leg upon receiving the baton.
There is usually a designated💻 area in which athletes must exchange the baton.
Teams may be disqualified if they fail to complete the change within the💻 area, or if the baton is dropped during the race.
A team may also be disqualified if its runners are deemed💻 to have wilfully impeded other competitors.
Girls handing over the baton in a relay race in Leipzig in 1950
Relay races emerged💻 in the United States in the 1880s as a variation on charity races betweenfiremen, who would hand a red pennant💻 on to team mates every 300 yards.
There are two very common relay events: the 4×100 metres relay and the 4×400💻 metres relay.
Both events entered the Olympic programme at the 1912 Summer Games after a one-off men's medley relay featured in💻 1908 Olympics.
The 4×100 m event is run strictly within the same lane on the track, meaning that the team collectively💻 runs one complete circuit of the track.
Teams in a 4×400 m event remain in their own lane until the runner💻 of the second leg passes the first bend, at which point runners can leave their lanes and head towards the💻 inner-most part of the circuit.
For the second and third baton change overs, team mates must align themselves in respect of💻 their team position – leading teams take the inner lanes while team mates of the slower teams must await the💻 baton on outer lanes.
The IAAF keeps world records for five different types of track relays.
As with 4×100 m and 4×400💻 m events, all races comprise teams of four athletes running the same distances, with the less commonly contested distances being💻 the 4×200 m, 4×800 m and 4×1500 m relays.
Other events include the distance medley relay (comprising legs of 1200 m,💻 400 m, 800 m, and 1600 m) which is frequently held in the United States, and a sprint relay –💻 known as the Swedish medley relay – which is popular in Scandinavia and is also featured on the World Youth💻 Championships in Athletics programme.
[40] Relay events have significant participation in the United States, where a number of large meetings (or💻 relay carnivals) are focused almost exclusively on relay events.[41]
A women's 400 m hurdles race at the 2007 Dutch Championships
Races with💻 hurdles as obstacles were first popularised in the 19th century in England.
The first known event, held in 1830, was a💻 variation of the 100-yard dash which included heavy wooden barriers as obstacles.
A competition between the Oxford and Cambridge Athletic Clubs💻 in 1864 refined this; holding a 120-yard race (109.
72 m) which had ten hurdles of 3-foot and 6 inches (1.
06💻 m) in height (each placed 10 yards (9.
14 m) apart), with the first and final hurdles 15 yards from the💻 start and finish, respectively.
French organisers adapted the race into metric (adding 28 cm) and the basics of this race, the💻 men's 110 metres hurdles, has remained largely unchanged.
The origin of the 400 metres hurdles also lies in Oxford, where (around💻 1860) a competition was held over 440 yards and twelve 1.
06 m high wooden barriers were placed along the course.
The💻 modern regulations stem from the 1900 Summer Olympics: the distance was fixed to 400 m while ten 3-foot (91.
44 cm)💻 hurdles were placed 35 m apart on the track, with the first and final hurdles being 45 m and 40💻 m away from the start and finish, respectively.
Women's hurdles are slightly lower at 84 cm for the 100 m event💻 and 76 cm (2 ft 6in) for the 400 m event.
By far the most common events are the 100 metres💻 hurdles for women, 110 m hurdles for men and 400 m hurdles for both sexes.
The men's 110 m has been💻 featured at every modern Summer Olympics while the men's 400 m was introduced in the second edition of the Games.
Women's💻 initially competed in the 80 metres hurdles event, which entered the Olympic programme in 1932.
This was extended to the 100💻 m hurdles at the 1972 Olympics, but it was not until 1984 that a women's 400 m hurdles event took💻 place at the Olympics (having been introduced at the 1983 World Championships in Athletics the previous year).
Men traversing the water💻 jump in a steeplechase competition
Outside of the hurdles events, the steeplechase race is the other track and field event which💻 includes obstacles.
Just as the hurdling events, the steeplechase finds its origin in student competition in Oxford, England.
However, this event was💻 born as a human variation on the original steeplechasecompetition found in horse racing.
A steeplechase event was held on a track💻 for the 1879 English championships and the 1900 Summer Olympics featured men's 2500 m and 4000 m steeplechase races.
The event💻 was held over various distances until the 1920 Summer Olympics marked the rise of the 3000 metres steeplechase as the💻 standard event.
The IAAF set the standards of the event in 1954, and the event is held on a 400 m💻 circuit which includes a water jump on each lap.
[46] Despite the long history of men's steeplechase in track and field,💻 the women's steeplechase only gained World Championship status in 2005, with its first Olympic appearance coming in 2008.
The long jump💻 is one of the oldest track and field events, having its roots as one of the events within the ancient💻 Greek pentathlon contest.
The athletes would take a short run up and jump into an area of dug up earth, with💻 the winner being the one who jumped furthest.
[47] Small weights (Halteres) were held in each hand during the jump then💻 swung back and dropped near the end in order to gain extra momentum and distance.
The modern long jump, standardised in💻 England and the United States around 1860, bears resemblance to the ancient event although no weights are used.
Athletes sprint along💻 a length of track which leads up to a jumping board and a sandpit.
The athletes must jump before a marked💻 line and their achieved distance is measured from the nearest point of sand which was disturbed by the athlete's body.
The💻 athletics competition at the first Olympics featured a men's long jump competition and a women's competition was introduced at the💻 1948 Summer Olympics.
Professional long jumpers typically have strong acceleration and sprinting abilities.
However, athletes must also have a consistent stride to💻 allow them to take off near the board while still maintaining their maximum speed.
In addition to the traditional long jump,💻 a standing long jump contest exists in which athletes must leap from a static position without the aid of a💻 run up.
A men's version of this event featured on the Olympic programme from 1900 to 1912.
Similar to the long jump,💻 the triple jump takes place on a track heading towards a sandpit.
Originally, athletes would hop on the same leg twice💻 before jumping into the pit, but this was changed to the current "hop, step and jump" pattern from 1900 onwards.
[53]💻 There is some dispute over whether the triple jump was contested in ancient Greece: while some historians claim that a💻 contest of three jumps occurred at Ancient Games, others such as Stephen G.
Miller believe this to be incorrect, suggesting that💻 the belief stems from a mythologised account of Phayllus of Crotonhaving jumped 55 ancient feet (around 16.3 m).
The Book of💻 Leinster, a 12th century Irish manuscript, records the existence of geal-ruith(triple jump) contests at the ancient Tailteann Games.
The men's triple💻 jump competition has been ever-present at the modern Olympics, but it was not until 1993 that a women's version gained💻 World Championship status and went on to have its first Olympic appearance three years later.
A men's standing triple jump event💻 featured at the 1900 and 1904 Olympics but such competitions have since become very uncommon, although it is still used💻 as a non-competitive exercise drill.[56]High jump
The first recorded instances of high jumping competitions were in Scotland in the 19th century.
[57]Further💻 competitions were organised in 1840 in England and in 1865 the basic rules of the modern event were standardised there.
Athletes💻 have a short run up and then take off from one foot to jump over a horizontal bar and fall💻 back onto a cushioned landing area.
The men's high jump was included in the 1896 Olympics and a women's competition soon💻 followed in 1928.
Jumping technique has played a significant part in the history of the event.
High jumpers typically cleared the bar💻 feet first in the late 19th century, using either the Scissors, Eastern cut-off or Western roll technique.
The straddle technique became💻 prominent in the mid-20th century, but Dick Fosburyoverturned tradition by pioneering a backwards and head-first technique in the late 1960s💻 – theFosbury Flop – which won him the gold at the 1968 Olympics.
This technique has become the overwhelming standard for💻 the sport from the 1980s onwards.
The standing high jump was contested at the Olympics from 1900 to 1912, but is💻 now relatively uncommon outside of its use as an exercise drill.
In terms of sport, the use of poles for vaulting💻 distances was recorded in Fierljeppen contests in the Frisian area of Europe, and vaulting for height was seen at gymnastics💻 competitions in Germany in the 1770s.
One of the earliest recorded pole vault competitions was in Cumbria, England in 1843.
The basic💻 rules and technique of the event originated in the United States.
The rules required that athletes do not move their hands💻 along the pole and athletes began clearing the bar with their feet first and twisting so that the stomach faces💻 the bar.
Bamboopoles were introduced in the 20th century and a metal box in the runway for planting the pole became💻 standard.
Landing matresses were introduced in the mid-20th century to protect the athletes who were clearing increasingly greater heights.
The modern event💻 sees athletes run down a strip of track, plant the pole in the metal box, and vault over the horizontal💻 bar before letting go of the pole and falling backwards onto the landing matress.
While earlier versions used wooden, metal or💻 bamboo, modern poles are generally made from artificial materials such asfibreglass or carbon fibre.
The pole vault has been an Olympic💻 event since 1896 for men, but it was over 100 years later that the first women's world championship competition was💻 held at the 1997 IAAF World Indoor Championships.
The first women's Olympic pole vaulting competition occurred in 2000.[61]
The genesis of the💻 shot put can be traced to pre-historic competitions with rocks: in the middle ages thestone put was known in Scotland💻 and the steinstossen was recorded in Switzerland.
In the 17th century,cannonball throwing competitions within the English military provided a precursor to💻 the modern sport.
The modern rules were first laid out in 1860 and legal throws had to be taken within a💻 square throwing area of seven feet (2.13 m) on each side.
This was amended to a circle area with a seven💻 foot diameter in 1906 and the weight of the shot was standardised to 16 pounds (7.26 kg).
Throwing technique was also💻 refined over this period, with bent arm throws being banned as they were deemed too dangerous and the side-step and💻 throw technique arising in the United States in 1876.[66]
The shot put has been an Olympic sport for men since 1896💻 and a women's competition using a 4 kg (8.
82 lb) shot was added in 1948.
Further throwing techniques have arisen since💻 the post-war era: in the 1950s Parry O'Brien popularised the 180 degree turn and throw technique commonly known as the💻 "glide," breaking the world record 16 times along the way, while Aleksandr Baryshnikov andBrian Oldfield introduced the "spin" or rotational💻 technique in 1976.[66][68]
As one of the events within the ancient pentathlon, the history of the discus throw dates back to💻 708 BC.
[69] In ancient times a heavy circular disc was thrown from a set standing position on a small pedestal,💻 and it was this style that was revived for the 1896 Olympics.
This continued until the 1906 Intercalated Games in Athens,💻 which featured both the ancient style and the increasingly popular modern style of turning and throwing.
By the 1912 Olympics, the💻 ancient standing throw style had fallen into disuse and contests starting within a 2.
5 m squared throwing area became the💻 standard.
The discus implement was standardised to 2 kg (4.
4 pounds) in weight and 22 cm (8 inches) in diameter in💻 1907.
The women's discus was among the first women's events on the Olympic programme, being introduced in 1928.
Combined (or multi-discipline) events💻 are competitions in which athletes participate in a number of track and field events, earning points for their performance in💻 each events which goes towards a total points score.
Outdoors, the most common combined events are the men's decathlon and the💻 women's heptathlon.
Due to stadium limitations, indoor combined events competition have a reduced number of events, resulting in the men's heptathlon💻 and the women's pentathlon.
Athletes are allocated points based on an international-standard points scoring system, such as thedecathlon scoring table.
The Ancient💻 Olympic pentathlon (comprising long jump, javelin, discus, the stadion race and wrestling) was a precursor to the track and field💻 combined events and this ancient event was restored at the 1906 Summer Olympics (Intercalated Games).
A men's decathlon was held at💻 the1904 Summer Olympics, albeit contested between five American and two British athletes.
The Panathinaiko Stadium was the one of the first💻 modern track and field stadiums
The term track and field is intertwined with the stadiums which first hosted track and field💻 competitions.
The two basic features of a track and field stadium are the outer oval-shaped running track and an area of💻 turf within this track – the field.
In earlier competitions the lengths of the tracks varied: the Panathinaiko Stadium measured 333.
33💻 metres at the 1896 Summer Olympics, while at the 1904 Olympics the distance was a third of a mile (536.
45💻 m) at Francis Field.
As the sport developed, the IAAF standardised the length to 400 m and stated that the tracks💻 must be split into six to eight running lanes.
Precise widths for the lanes were established, as were regulations regarding the💻 curvature of the track.
Tracks made of flattened cinders were popular in the early 20th century but synthetic tracks became standard💻 in the late 1960s.
3M's Tartan track (an all-weather running track of polyurethane) gained popularity after its use at the 1968💻 US Olympic Trials and the 1968 Summer Olympics and it began the process in which synthetic tracks became the standard💻 for the sport.
Many track and field stadiums are multi-purpose stadiums, with the running track surrounding a field which is built💻 for other sports such as the various types of football.
A typical layout of an outdoor track and field stadium
The field💻 of the stadium combines a number of elements for use in the jumping and throwing events.
The long jump and triple💻 jump areas comprise a straight, narrow 40-metre running track with asandpit at one or both ends.
Jumps are measured from a💻 take off board – typically a small strip ofwood with a plasticine marker attached – which is used to ensure💻 athletes jump from behind the measurement line.
The pole vault area is also a 40-metre running track and it has an💻 indentation in the ground (the box) in which poles are planted.
Athletes then propel themselves over a crossbar before falling onto💻 a cushioned area of landing mats.
The high jump is a stripped down version of this, with an open area of💻 track or field leading up to a crossbar with a square area of landing mats behind it.
The four throwing events💻 generally all begin on one side of the stadium.
The javelin throw typically takes place on a piece of track that💻 is central and parallel to the straights of the main running track.
The javelin throwing area is a sector shape frequently💻 across the Pitch (sports field) in the middle of the stadium, ensuring that the javelin has a minimal chance of💻 causing damage or injury.
The discus throw and hammer throw contests begin in a tall metal cage which is usually situated💻 in one of the corners of the field.
The cage reduces the danger of implements being thrown out of the field💻 of play and throws will travel diagonally across the field in the centre of the stadium.
The shot put features a💻 circular throwing area with a toe board at one end.
The throwing area is asector.
Some stadia also have a water jump💻 area on one side of the field specifically for steeplechase races.
Basic indoor venues may be adapted gymnasiums, which can easily💻 accommodate high jump competitions and short track events.
Full-size indoor arenas (i.e.
those fully equipped to host all events for the World💻 Indoor Championships) bear similarities with their outdoor equivalents.
Typically, a central area is surrounded by a 200-metre oval track with four💻 to eight lanes.
The track may be banked at the turns to allow athletes to run around the radius more comfortably.
There💻 is also a second running track going straight across the field area, parallel to the straights of the main circuit.
This💻 track is used for the 60 metres and 60 metres hurdles events – competitions which are held almost exclusively indoors.
Another💻 common adaptation is a 160 yard track (11 laps to a mile) that fits into a common basketball court sized💻 arena.
This was quite popular when races were held at imperial distances, which gradually was phased out by different organizations in💻 the 1970s and 1980s.
Examples of this configuration include the Millrose Games at Madison Square Garden, and the Sunkist Invitational formerly💻 held in the Los Angeles Sports Arena.
All four of the common jumping events are held at indoor venues.
The long and💻 triple jump areas run alongside the central 60 m track and are mostly identical in form to their outdoor counterparts.
The💻 pole vault track and landing area are also alongside the central running track.
Shot put (or weight throw) is the only💻 throwing event held indoors due to size restrictions.
The throwing area is similar to the outdoor event, but the landing sector💻 is a rectangular section surrounded by netting or a stop barrier.
The rules of track athletics or of track events in💻 athletics as observed in most international athletics competitions are set by the Competition Rules of the International Association of Athletics💻 Federations (IAAF).
The most recent complete set of rules is the 2009 rules that relate only to competitions in 2009.
Key rules💻 of track events are those regarding starting, running and finishing.
Men assuming the starting position for a sprint race
The start of💻 a race is marked by a white line 5 cm wide.
In all races that are not run in lanes the💻 start line must be curved, so that all the athletes start the same distance from the finish.
Starting blocks may be💻 used for all races up to and including 400 m (including the first leg of the 4 x 200 m💻 and 4 x 400 m) and may not be used for any other race.
No part of the starting block may💻 overlap the start line or extend into another lane.
[91] All races must be started by the report of the starter's💻 gun or approved starting apparatus fired upwards after he or she has ascertained that athletes are steady and in the💻 correct starting position.
An athlete may not touch either the start line or the ground in front of it with his💻 or her hands or feet when on his or her marks.
At most international competitions the commands of the starter in💻 his or her own language, in English or in French, shall, in races up to and including 400 m, be💻 "On your marks" and "Set".
When all athletes are "set", the gun must be fired, or an approved starting apparatus must💻 be activated.
However, if the starter is not satisfied that all is ready to proceed, the athletes may be called out💻 of the blocks and the process started over.
False start: An athlete, after assuming a final set position, may not commence💻 his starting motion until after receiving the report of the gun, or approved starting apparatus.
If, in the judgment of the💻 starter or recallers, he does so any earlier, it is considered a false start.
It is deemed a false start if,💻 in the judgment of the starter an athlete fails to comply with the commands "on your marks" or "set" as💻 appropriate after a reasonable time; or an athlete after the command "on your marks" disturbs other athletes in the race💻 through sound or otherwise.
If the runner is in the "set" position and moves, then the runner is also disqualified.
As of💻 2010, any athlete making a false start is disqualified.
This rule was already in place in high school and college.
In International💻 Elite competition, electronically tethered starting blocks sense the reaction time of the athletes.
If the athlete reacts in less than 0.
1💻 second, an alert sounds for a recall starter and the offending athlete is guilty of a false start.
In all races💻 run in lanes, each athlete must keep within his allocated lane from start to finish.
This also applies to any portion💻 of a race run in lanes.
If an athlete leaves the track or steps on the line demarking the track, he/she💻 should be disqualified.
Also, any athlete who jostles or obstructs another athlete, in a way that impedes his progress, should be💻 disqualified from that event.
However, if an athlete is pushed or forced by another person to run outside his lane, and💻 if no material advantage is gained, the athlete should not be disqualified.
There are races that start in lanes and then💻 at a "break" line, the competitors merge.
Examples of this are the 800 metres, 4x400 relay and the indoor 400 metres.
Variations💻 on this, with alleys made up of multiple lanes on the track, are used to start large fields of distance💻 runners.
The finish
The finish of a race is marked by a white line 5 cm wide.
The athletes must be placed in💻 the order in which any part of their torso (as distinguished from the head, neck, arms, legs, hands or feet)💻 reaches the vertical plane of the nearer edge of the finish line.
Fully automatic timing systems (photo timing) are becoming more💻 and more common at increasingly lower levels of track meets, improving the accuracy, while eliminating the need for eagle-eyed officials💻 on the finish line.
Fully automatic timing (FAT) is required for high level meets and any time a (sprint) record is💻 set (though distance records can be accepted if timed by three independent stopwatches).
With the accuracy of the timing systems, ties💻 are rare.
Ties between different athletes are resolved as follows: In determining whether there has been a tie in any round💻 for a qualifying position for the next round based on time, a judge (called the chief photo finish judge) must💻 consider the actual time recorded by the athletes to one thousandth of a second.
If the judge decides that there has💻 been a tie, the tying athletes must be placed in the next round or, if that is not practicable, lots💻 must be drawn to determine who must be placed in the next round.
In the case of a tie for first💻 place in any final, the referee decides whether it is practicable to arrange for the athletes so tying to compete💻 again.
If he decides it is not, the result will stand.
Ties in other placings remain.
In general, most field events allow a💻 competitor to take their attempt individually, under theoretically the same conditions as the other competitors in the competition.
Each attempt is💻 measured to determine who achieved the longest distance.
Vertical jumps (High Jump and Pole Vault) set a bar at a particular💻 height.
The competitor must clear the bar without knocking it off the standards that are holding the bar (flat).
Three failures in💻 a row will end the competitor's participation in the event.
The competitor has the option to PASS their attempt, which can💻 be used to strategic advantage (of course that advantage is lost if the competitor misses).
A pass could be used to💻 save energy and avoid taking a jump that would not improve their position in the standings.
After all competitors have either💻 cleared, passed or failed their attempts at a height, the bar will go up.
The amount the bar goes up is💻 predetermined before the competition, though when one competitor remains, that competitor may choose their own heights for the remaining attempts.
A💻 record is kept of each attempt by each competitor.
After all competitors have taken their attempts, the one jumping the highest💻 is the winner, and so on down the other competitors in the event.
Ties are broken by first, the number of💻 attempts taken at the highest height (fewest wins), and then if still tied, by the total number of misses in💻 the competition as a whole.
The bar does not go back to a lower height except to break a tie for💻 first place or a qualifying position.
If those critical positions are still tied after applying the tiebreakers, all tied competitors will💻 take a fourth jump at the last height.
If they still miss, the bar will go down one increment where they💻 will again jump.
This process will continue until the tie is broken.
Horizontal jumps (Long Jump and Triple Jump) and all throws💻 must be initiated behind a line.
In the case of horizontal jumps, that line is a straight line perpendicular to the💻 runway.
In the case of throws, that line is an arc or a circle.
Crossing the line while initiating the attempt will💻 invalidate the attempt-it will become a foul.
All landings must occur in a sector.
For the jumps, that is a sand filled💻 pit, for throws it is a defined sector.
A throw landing on the line on the edge of sector is a💻 foul (the inside edge of the line is the outside edge of the sector).
Assuming a proper attempt, officials will then💻 measure the distance from the closest landing point back to the line.
The measuring tape is carefully straightened to the shortest💻 distance between the point and the line.
To accomplish this, the tape must be perfectly perpendicular to the take off line💻 in jumps, or is pulled through the center point of the arc for throws.
The officials at the landing end of💻 the tape have the zero, while the officials at the point of initiation will see the length and record the💻 measurement.
Whenever a record (or potential record) occurs, that measurement is taken (again) using a steel tape and observed by at💻 least three officials (plus usually the meet referee).
Steel tapes tend to be easily bent and damaged, so they are not💻 used to measure everyday competitions.
For major competitions, each competitor will get three attempts.
The top competitors (usually 8 or 9 depending💻 on that competition's rules or the number of lanes on the track) will get three more attempts.
At that level of💻 competition, the order of competitors for those final three attempts are set in order so the competitor in first place💻 at the end of the third round will be last, while the last competitor to qualify will go first.
Some meets💻 will rearrange the competition order again for the final round so the final attempt will be taken by the leader💻 at that point.
At other competitions, meet management may choose to limit all competitors to four or three attempts.
Whatever the format,💻 all competitors get an equal number of attempts.
The international governance of track and field falls under the jurisdiction of athletics💻 organisations.
The International Association of Athletics Federations is the global governing body for track and field, and athletics as a whole.
The💻 governance of track and field at continental and national level is also done by athletics bodies.
Some national federations are named💻 after the sport, including USA Track & Field and the Philippine Amateur Track & Field Association, but these organisations govern💻 more than just track and field and are in fact athletics governing bodies.
These national federations regulate sub-national and local track💻 and field clubs, as well as other types of running clubs.
The major global track and field competitions are both held💻 under the scope of athletics.
Track and field contests make up the majority of events on the Olympic athletics programme which💻 occurs every four years.
Track and field events have held a prominent position at the Summer Olympicssince its inception in 1896,💻 and the events are typically held in the main stadium of the Olympics.
Events such as the 100 metres receive some💻 of the highest levels of media coverage of any Olympic sporting event.
The other two major international competition for track and💻 field are organised by the IAAF.
The IAAF had selected the Olympic competition as its world championship event in 1913, but💻 a separate world championships for athletics alone was first held in 1983 – the IAAF World Championships in Athletics.
The championships💻 comprised track and field competitions plus the marathon andracewalking competitions.
Initially, this worked on a quadrennial basis but, after 1991, it💻 changed to a biennial format.
In terms of indoor track and field, the IAAF World Indoor Championships in Athleticshas been held💻 every two years since 1985 and this is the only world championships that consists of solely track and field events.
Similar💻 to the event programmes at the Olympics and World Championships, track and field forms a significant part of continental championships.
The💻 South American Championships in Athletics, created in 1919, was the first continental championships and the European Athletics Championshipsbecame the second💻 championships of this type in 1934.
The Asian Athletics Championships andAfrican Championships in Athletics were created in the 1970s and Oceania💻 started itschampionships in 1990.
There are also indoor continental competitions in Europe (European Athletics Indoor Championships) and Asia (Asian Indoor Athletics💻 Championships).
There has not been a consistent championships for all of North America, which may be (in part) due to the💻 success of both the Central American and Caribbean Championships and the USA Outdoor Track and Field Championships.
Most countries have a💻 national championship in track and field and, for athletes, these often play a role in gaining selection into major competitions.
In💻 some countries there are many track and field championships athigh school and college-level which serve to develop the abilities of💻 younger athletes; some of these have achieved significant exposure and prestige, such as the NCAA Track and Field Championship in💻 the United States and the Jamaican High School Championships.
However, the number and status of such competitions significantly vary from country💻 to country.
Mirroring the role that track and field events have at the Summer Olympics, the sport is featured within the💻 athletics programmes of many major multi-sport events.
Among some of the first of these events to follow the Olympic-style model were💻 the World University Games in 1923, theCommonwealth Games in 1930, and the Maccabiah Games in 1932.
[105] The number of major💻 multi-sport events greatly increased during the 20th century and thus did the number of track and field events held within💻 them.
Typically, track and field events are hosted at the main stadium of the games.
After the Olympic Games, the most prominent💻 events for track and field athletes include the three IOC-sanctioned continental games: the All-Africa Games, Asian Games, and the Pan💻 American Games.
Other games such as the Commonwealth Games and Summer Universiade, and World Masters Games have significant participation from track💻 and field athletes.
Track and field is also present at the national games level, with competitions such as the Chinese National💻 Games serving as a the most prestigious national competition for domestic track and field athletes.
One-day track and field meetings form💻 the most common and seasonal aspect of the sport – they are the most basic level of track and field💻 competition.
Meetings are generally organised annually either under the patronage of an educational institution or sports club, or by a group💻 or business which serves as the meeting promoter.
In the case of the former, athletes are selected to represent their club💻 or institution.
In the case of privately run or independent meetings, athletes participate on an invitation-only basis.
A child taking part in💻 a local schools meeting in Cambodia
The most basic type of meetings are all-comers track meets, which are largely small, local,💻 informal competitions that allow people of all ages and abilities to compete.
As meetings become more organized they can gain official💻 sanctioning by the local or national association for the sport.
At the professional level, meetings began to offer significant financial incentives💻 for all athletes in the 1990s in Europe with the creation of the "Golden Four" competition, comprising meetings in Zürich,💻 Brussels, Berlin and Oslo.
This expanded and received IAAF backing as the IAAF Golden League in 1998, which was later supplemented💻 by the branding of selected meetings worldwide as the IAAF World Athletics Tour.
In 2010, the Golden League idea was expanded💻 globally as the IAAF Diamond League series and this now forms the top tier of professional one-day track and field💻 meetings.
Athletes performances are timed or measured at virtually all track and field competitions.
Doing so can not only serve as a💻 way of determining the winner in an event, but it can also be used for historical comparison (i.e.a record).
A large💻 variety of record types exist and men's and women's performances are recorded separately.
The foremost types of records are those which💻 organise athlete's performances by the region which they are representing: beginning with national records, then continental records, up to the💻 global or world record level.
National governing bodies control the national record lists, the area associations organise their respective continental lists,💻 and the IAAF is the body which ratifies world records.
A graph of the world record progression in the men's 100💻 metres
The IAAF ratifies track and field world records if they meet their set criteria.
The IAAF first published a world records💻 list in 1914, initially for men's events only.
There were 53 recognised records in running, hurdling and relay, and 12 field💻 records.
World records in women's events began in 1936 as more events were gradually added to the list, but significant changes💻 were made in the late 1970s.
First, all records in imperial measurements were abandoned in 1976, with the sole exceptional being💻 the mile run due to the prestige and history of the event.
The following year, all world records in sprint events💻 would only be recognised if fully automatic electronic timing was used (as opposed to the traditional hand-timing stopwatch method).
In 1981,💻 electronic timing was made compulsory for all world record runs in track and field, with times being recorded to within💻 one hundredth of a second.
Two additional types of world record were introduced in 1987: world records for indoor competitions, and💻 world records for junior athletes under 20 years old.
The next most important record type are those achieved at a specific💻 competition – for example the Olympic records which are the best performances by athletes during events at the Summer Olympics.
All💻 major championships and games have their relevant competition records and a large number of track and field meetings keep a💻 note of their meet records.
Other record types include: stadium records, records by age range, records by disability, and records by💻 institution or organisation.
Cash bonuses are usually offered to athletes if they break significant records, as doing so can generate greater💻 interest and public attendance in track and field competitions.
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